The wording changes in the Chinese National People’s Congress annual keynote speech suggest more currency liberalisation, thus increasing currency volatility. We expect more risk aversion towards Chinese assets in the short run. What the Chinese authorities can do next?
The Chinese National People’s Congress dropped the pledge to ensure that the Renminbi “remains generally stable at an appropriate and balanced level”. Chinese officials also said “the Renminbi exchange rate will be further liberalised, and the currency’s stable position in the global monetary system will be maintained”. In our opinion, these changes in the statement increase the risk of higher currency volatility while a one-off devaluation seems less likely at this stage. We also believe the currency liberalisation is more likely than another devaluation of the Yuan as the latter would complicate further the Chinese relationship with the US who relentlessly accused China of currency manipulation.
The Yuan fell 7% against the US dollar last year as the Chinese economic growth slowed and capital outflows rose. In an attempt to slow down the drop of the yuan, the PBOC sold its FX reserves (almost US$3bn in 2016) and implemented stricter capital controls (capital account fell to -US$200mn at the end of last year).
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The latest hawkish comments from FOMC’s member suggest higher US rates sooner rather than later. These comments might have had an impact on Premier Lu Keqiang’s decision to change the statement, giving more flexibility to the Chinese authorities in conducting economic policy. The latest keynote speech also signals that Chinese authorities would be unlikely to divest their FX reserves at the current pace for long if the dollar appreciates further.
Overall, we believe the Chinese authorities could move toward more currency liberalisation, meaning more currency risk for investors. They could also implement stricter capital controls to reduce capital outflows, which would likely increase risk aversion from foreign investors. Finally, the PBOC could decide to tighten its monetary policy, which is potentially too accommodative now taking into account the explosive trend on the Chinese credit market (China’s total debt reached 250% of GDP in late 2016 from 160% before the financial crisis). However, the PBOC would face a great challenge in tightening monetary policy to reduce capital outflows, slow down credit growth and limit the depreciation of the Yuan without triggering a credit and banking crisis and ultimately a recession.
We expect more risk aversion towards Chinese assets in the short run alongside increased currency volatility and bond risk contingent on the next PBOC’s policy move. Over the longer term, China’s economic growth will slow down gradually as the country continues its convergence toward more developed economies, which favours Chinese bonds over equities.
Morgane Delledonne, Fixed Income Strategist at ETF Securities
Morgane Delledonne joined ETF Securities as Fixed Income Strategist in 2016. Morgane has an extensive experience in Monetary policy, Fixed Income Markets and Macroeconomics gained at the French Treasury’s Office in Washington DC and most recently in her role as Macroeconomist and Strategist at Pictet&Cie in Geneva. Morgane holds a Bachelor of Applied Mathematics from the University of Nice Sophia Antipolis (France), a Master of Economics and Finance Engineering and a Master of Economic Diagnosis from the University of Paris Dauphine (France).
ETF Securities Currencies – Chinese Renminbi, The Basics
Summary
The liberalisation of currency controls and the growth of the “Dim-sum” bond market have seen the global trade of the hinese Renminbi (RMB) soar in recent years.
The RMB has come into sharp focus since last August, where its sudden depreciation generated a severe market selloff.
The RMB is traded on both onshore and offshore markets and rates between the two can differ.
Capital controls currently in place require the use of Non- Deliverable Forwards (NDFs) to gain exposure to the onshore RMB exchange rate for investors.
Since the development of the Yuan in 1948, Chinese authorities have maintained strict control over its value, pegging it to the US Dollar at various levels to meet economic objectives1. From 1994, the fixed exchange rate regime saw China accumulate a large trade surplus and considerable foreign exchange reserves (see Figure 1) as the undervaluation of the currency kept international exports artificially competitive.
(click to enlarge) 1 A Yuan is a unit of Chinese currency and is to the Renminbi (RMB) what the Pound is to Sterling, so both terms can be used interchangeably.
Unsurprisingly, this policy was unpopular and generated pressure from its primary trading partners, pressure which in 2005 led to a movement towards a “managed floating” exchange rate regime and a removal of the peg. This gave the currency more flexibility but still allowed for government influence on its overall level.
In more recent years, Chinese authorities have altered course and have progressively removed barriers to the free trade of the RMB. These moves have prompted the growing use of the Yuan in international business, with the RMB recently surpassing the Japanese Yen to become the fourth most popular payment currency globally (SWIFT, 2015). In addition, the proliferation of the “Dim-sum” bond market in 2009, which are bonds issued outside of China denominated in RMB have also helped the internationalisation of the currency. Global bodies like the International Monetary Fund (IMF) have also acknowledged the increasingly “free” use of the RMB and have included the Yuan in the valuation of its coveted Special Drawing Rights (SDR) basket in October of last year.
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Many faces of the RMB
The global market for the RMB is somewhat segmented and so is quoted in a number of forms.
The RMB is traded both on the onshore Chinese market and on numerous offshore markets in Hong Kong, London, Singapore and New York. On a daily basis the People’s Bank of China (PBoC), the Chinese Central bank, provides a daily fixing (at 09.15 local time) for the onshore rate (CNY) against the a basket of reference currencies, around which the pair can trade within a ±2% band. This onshore market, despite being somewhat liberalised, is still subject to considerable regulation.
The offshore market rate (CNH) is not subject to as strict controls and is ultimately determined by market forces. While the CNY and CNH rates tend to move in tandem, differences in liquidity and capital restrictions on arbitrage prevent this gap from closing permanently (see Figure 2).
Yuan plunges
On August 11th 2015, the PBoC announced that it would modify the mechanism through which the daily Yuan fixing would take place. In attempt to foster a more “market-driven” process, quotes from onshore primary dealers would be used as inputs into the calculation of the fix on a daily basis. That morning, the USD/CNY fix plunged 1.9% and the next day a further 1.0% in response, the largest absolute one day moves since the peg was removed in 2005.
The sharp declines sparked speculation that Chinese authorities were more concerned about domestic growth than previously anticipated and permitted the depreciation to boost the competitiveness of Chinese exports. The Chinese stock market reaction was sharp; with the Hang Seng Index plunging 3% intraday (see Figure 3). The impact was felt globally, with other major equity indices also falling considerably, only to recoup losses in the subsequent trade.
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How to trade the CNY
Due to trading restrictions imposed on the CNY, a liquid market for CNY Non-Deliverable Forwards (NDFs) has blossomed. An NDF is a forward contract that fixes the exchange rate for a currency transaction at some point in the future. At expiry the profit/loss of the underlying contract is calculated and converted into US Dollars and settled.
NDF’s evolved out of the necessity for market participants to hedge exposure to currencies such as the CNY, Taiwan Dollar (TWD) and the Brazilian Real (BRL) all of which are subject to capital controls and cannot be physically delivered. Like FX forwards, the rates at which NDFs price is based on expected future interest rate differentials between the two relevant currencies.
When using NDFs, an investor has to “roll” his/her position prior to expiry in order for the currency exposure to be maintained. “Rolling” involves closing out a near term position before it expires and re-investing in a longer dated forward. Like in other asset classes this process can incur a cost/gain depending on the shape of the forward curve. As mentioned previously, interest rate differentials determine forward FX levels and thus dictate the shape of the curve and the corresponding impact of the roll (see Figure 4).
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An alternative to investing through NDF’s directly is to utilise currency exchange traded products (ETPs). Currency ETPs provide a transparent, liquid and freely tradable medium through which to gain access to emerging market currency pairs. Currency ETPs trade like shares and mitigate some of the operational complexities involved in investing in NDFs, although indices are priced from NDF’s.
Prospects for the CNY
Chinese authorities continue to manage the nation’s transition from an export and investment led fast growing economy to a more moderate mature consumer driven model. Recent declines in the PBoC’s FX reserves and intervention in the onshore stock market reflect the government’s desire for stability during this period of change. Therefore the possibility of further monetary intervention remains, which, in the near term which could weigh the RMB.
Important Information
This communication has been issued and approved for the purpose of section 21 of the Financial Services and Markets Act 2000 by ETF Securities (UK) Limited (“ETFS UK”) which is authorised and regulated by the United Kingdom Financial Conduct Authority (the “FCA”).
The information contained in this communication is for your general information only and is neither an offer for sale nor a solicitation of an offer to buy securities. This communication should not be used as the basis for any investment decision. Historical performance is not an indication of future performance and any investments may go down in value.
This document is not, and under no circumstances is to be construed as, an advertisement or any other step in furtherance of a public offering of shares or securities in the United States or any province or territory thereof. Neither this document nor any copy hereof should be taken, transmitted or distributed (directly or indirectly) into the United States.
This communication may contain independent market commentary prepared by ETFS UK based on publicly available information. Although ETFS UK endeavours to ensure the accuracy of the content in this communication, ETFS UK does not warrant or guarantee its accuracy or correctness. Any third party data providers used to source the information in this communication make no warranties or representation of any kind relating to such data. Where ETFS UK has expressed its own opinions related to product or market activity, these views may change. Neither ETFS UK, nor any affiliate, nor any of their respective officers, directors, partners, or employees accepts any liability whatsoever for any direct or consequential loss arising from any use of this publication or its contents.
ETFS UK is required by the FCA to clarify that it is not acting for you in any way in relation to the investment or investment activity to which this communication relates. In particular, ETFS UK will not provide any investment services to you and or advise you on the merits of, or make any recommendation to you in relation to, the terms of any transaction. No representative of ETFS UK is authorised to behave in any way which would lead you to believe otherwise. ETFS UK is not, therefore, responsible for providing you with the protections afforded to its clients and you should seek your own independent legal, investment and tax or other advice as you see fit.
• Commodities: Softer Chinese economy weighs on commodities.
• Equities: Already buoyant stocks to increase risk appetite.
• Currencies: The PBOC cut rates while ECB kept rates unchanged.
• Upcoming webinar: Commodities – Is the Outlook Changing? Register here to attend
Chinese GDP fell below the 7% target for the first time since Q2 2009 and whilst higher than expected, declining sentiment put downward pressure on most asset classes last week. Combined with weaker Chinese industrial production and a stronger USD, commodities have given back most of their recent gains. Stocks fell early last week before rebounding on the expectation of further stimulus from the European Central Bank by the end of 2015 and on the People’s Bank of China (PBOC) rate and reserve requirement ratio cut last Friday. Although the PBOC decision took the market by surprise, and initially buoyed sentiment, uncertainty surrounding the outlook for growth could weigh on sentiment for the coming week.
Commodities
Softer Chinese economy weighs on commodities. Although above market expectations, China GDP for Q3 fell below the Chinese government 7% target for 2015. Combined with lower-than-expected industrial production and a stronger USD, commodities fell by 1.8% last week, giving back most of their previous weeks’ gains. Gold slipped 1.5%, closing at US$1,167/oz. on Thursday, 0.7% below its 200-day moving average while large increase in US inventories weighed on the price of WTI, down 2.2%. Coffee plunged 10% over the past week on lower beans quality in Columbia and rain in Brazil while sugar rose 3% on strong China imports in September. Although the past three weeks saw what looked like a bear rally, commodities came under pressure again last week. We expect that continued global demand combined with further production cuts will eventually ease pressure on many commodities.
Equities
Already buoyant stocks to increase risk appetite. Global stocks started last week negatively as Chinese economic growth slowed for the third consecutive quarter in Q3. While major equity indices rebounded on Thursday following the ECB meeting, China’s central bank unexpectedly cut its lending rates to 4.35% last Friday. This is the 6th time China’s central bank has cut rates since November 2014 with investors split on whether this is a good or bad sign. MSCI China A Index closed last Friday trading day up 1.5% while the EuroStoxx 50 rallied 2.5% on Thursday as ECB president Draghi indicated that they will be ready to act if China slowdown becomes a threat to the ECB efforts in supporting the Eurozone recovery. Stocks in the US also performed strongly last week on overall better-than-expected Q3 earnings among the 172 companies (35%) that have reported earnings so far.
Currencies
The PBOC cut rates while ECB kept rates unchanged. The European Central Bank’s (ECB) appears ready to provide more stimulus, putting downward pressure on the Euro. We expect further weakness, particularly against the USD. Meanwhile, the PBOC cut its one-year lending rate by 25bps and the Reserve Requirement Ratio (RRR) by 50bps in response to falling domestic growth, dropping below the 7% target for 2015. The PBOC has however more room to support the Chinese economy and further declines in the CNY can’t be ruled out if it implements more aggressive monetary policy. While the PBOC cut its rate, a rate rise is still on the cards for the FED this year. Strong home sales and job data in the US lent support to the USD, up 2.1%, and this week’s FOMC meeting will be closely watched for clues as to the trigger for a rate hike.
For more information contact:
ETF Securities Research team
ETF Securities (UK) Limited
T +44 (0) 207 448 4336
E info@etfsecurities.com
Important Information
General
This communication has been issued and approved for the purpose of section 21 of the Financial Services and Markets Act 2000 by ETF Securities (UK) Limited (”ETFS UK”) which is authorised and regulated by the United Kingdom Financial Conduct Authority (”FCA”).
Investments may go up or down in value and you may lose some or all of the amount invested. Past performance is not necessarily a guide to future performance. You should consult an independent investment adviser prior to making any investment in order to determine its suitability to your circumstances.
The information contained in this communication is for your general information only and is neither an offer for sale nor a solicitation of an offer to buy securities. This communication should not be used as the basis for any investment decision. Historical performance is not an indication of future performance and any investments may go down in value.
This communication may contain independent market commentary prepared by ETFS UK based on publicly available information. Although ETFS UK endeavours to ensure the accuracy of the content in this communication, ETFS UK does not warrant or guarantee its accuracy or correctness. Any third party data providers used to source the information in this communication make no warranties or representation of any kind relating to such data. Where ETFS UK has expressed its own opinions related to product or market activity, these views may change. Neither ETFS UK, nor any affiliate, nor any of their respective, officers, directors, partners, or employees accepts any liability whatsoever for any direct or consequential loss arising from any use of this publication or its contents.
ETFS UK is required by the FSA to clarify that it is not acting for you in any way in relation to the investment or investment activity to which this communication relates. In particular, ETFS UK will not provide any investment services to you and or advise you on the merits of, or make any recommendation to you in relation to, the terms of any transaction. No representative of ETFS UK is authorised to behave in any way which would lead you to believe otherwise. ETFS UK is not, therefore, responsible for providing you with the protections afforded to its clients and you should seek your own independent legal, investment and tax or other advice as you see fit.
This document is not, and under no circumstances is to be construed as, an advertisement or any other step in furtherance of a public offering of shares or securities in the United States or any province or territory thereof. Neither this document nor any copy hereof should be taken, transmitted or distributed (directly or indirectly) into the United States.
Other than as set out above, investors may contact ETFS UK at +44 (0)20 7448 4330 or at retail@etfsecurities.com to obtain copies of prospectuses and related regulatory documentation, including annual reports. Other than as separately indicated, this communication is being made on a ”private placement” basis and is intended solely for the professional / institutional recipient to which it is delivered.
Third Parties
Securities issued by each of the Issuers are direct, limited recourse obligations of the relevant Issuer alone and are not obligations of or guaranteed by any of UBS AG, Merrill Lynch Commodities Inc. (”MLCI”), Bank of America Corporation (”BAC) or any of their affiliates. UBS AG, MLCI and BAC, Shell Trading Switzerland, Shell Treasury, HSBC Bank USA N.A., JP Morgan Chase Bank, N.A., Deutsche Bank AG any of their affiliates or anyone else or any of their affiliates. Each of UBS AG, Merrill Lynch Commodities Inc. (”MLCI”), Bank of America Corporation (”BAC) or any of their affiliates. UBS AG, MLCI and BAC, Shell Trading Switzerland, Shell Treasury, HSBC Bank USA N.A., JP Morgan Chase Bank, N.A. and Deutsche Bank AG disclaims all and any liability whether arising in tort, contract or otherwise (save as referred to above) which it might have in respect of this document or its contents otherwise arising in connection herewith.
”Dow Jones,” ”UBS”, DJ-UBS CISM,”, ”DJ-UBS CI-F3SM,” and any related indices or sub-indices are service marks of Dow Jones Trademark Holdings LLC (”Dow Jones”), CME Group Index Services LLC (”CME Indexes”), UBS AG (”UBS”) or UBS Securities LLC (”UBS Securities”), as the case may be, and have been licensed for use by the Issuer. The securities issued by CSL although based on components of the Dow Jones UBS Commodity Index 3 month ForwardSM are not sponsored, endorsed, sold or promoted by Dow Jones, CME Indexes, UBS, UBS Securities or any of their respective subsidiaries or affiliates, and none of Dow Jones, CME Indexes, UBS, UBS Securities, or any of their respective subsidiaries or affiliates, makes any representation regarding the advisability of investing in such product.
• Precious metals rally as industrial commodities slide on negative Chinese sentiment.
• European stocks sell-off as China reforms hit luxury goods and auto sectors.
• Chinese Renminbi devalued by nearly 5% as new reforms implemented.
The decision by the Peoples Bank of China (PBOC) to devalue its currency by a cumulative 5% last week, the most on record, and to change its fixing methodology for CNY caused a negative reaction across asset classes. Investors became more defensive, reducing positions in cyclical assets. Commodity sectors exposed to China, like energy and industrial metals, saw prices slide in a knee-jerk reaction as a result. USD weakness helped commodity markets rebound, as expectations of an interest rate hike began to be pushed further back in 2015. Many commodity prices initially declined by more than the change in the CNY/USD rate, indicating a sentiment driven change rather than a fundamental one.
Commodities
Precious metals rally as industrial commodities slide on negative Chinese sentiment. WTI and Brent crude oil benchmarks fell 5.47% and 2.47%, respectively reaching the lowest level in over six years, with the devaluation of the CNY thought by many investors to be a signal of declining future demand. Significant negative sentiment over the outlook for Chinese economic growth appears to be priced in to a range of commodity markets, particularly energy and industrial metals sectors. We expect the commodity price weakness to largely transitory many prices initially declining by more (in USD terms) than the devaluation of the CNY/USD rate, indicating a sentiment driven change rather than a fundamental one. Gold and silver were the largest beneficiaries of the China FX decision, as some risk aversion took hold as investor sentiment waned.
Equities
European stocks sell-off as China reforms hit luxury goods and auto sectors. European equity benchmarks posted losses early in the trading week, in line with other major global bourses, as investors digested the potentially negative implications of a weaker Renminbi for the Chinese economy. Sectors like materials, luxury goods and autos were some of the worst affected. The surprisingly weaker Q2 GDP numbers from Germany and France also adversely affected investor sentiment. In contrast, the Chinese sharemarkets didn’t overreact to the news as many other bourses did, posting gains for the week, despite weaker-than expected numbers on industrial production and retail sales.
Currencies
Chinese Renminbi devalued by nearly 5% as new reforms implemented. The significant policy change was to set the new Renminbi fixing rate at the previous day’s closing spot CNY rate. The PBOC’s move allows greater exchange rate flexibility and transparency of CNY pricing in its ongoing reform of the Renminbi and was not intended to be a ‘currency war’. We feel it shows progress towards a more market determined rate and is beneficial for its IMF SDR aspirations despite the IMF noting that the Chinese policy change has ‘no direct implications’ for its SDR review. Both the AUD and NZD lost ground on the markets expectations of more expensive exports to China crimping demand. Further softness from these two currencies is expected, with their respective central banks maintaining their easing biases. Meanwhile, the Swedish Krone was the strongest G10 performing G10 currency, after CPI numbers surprised to the upside which could keep the Riksbank from cutting rates at its next meeting.
For more information contact:
ETF Securities Research team
ETF Securities (UK) Limited
T +44 (0) 207 448 4336
E info@etfsecurities.com
Important Information
General
This communication has been issued and approved for the purpose of section 21 of the Financial Services and Markets Act 2000 by ETF Securities (UK) Limited (”ETFS UK”) which is authorised and regulated by the United Kingdom Financial Conduct Authority (”FCA”).
Investments may go up or down in value and you may lose some or all of the amount invested. Past performance is not necessarily a guide to future performance. You should consult an independent investment adviser prior to making any investment in order to determine its suitability to your circumstances.
The information contained in this communication is for your general information only and is neither an offer for sale nor a solicitation of an offer to buy securities. This communication should not be used as the basis for any investment decision. Historical performance is not an indication of future performance and any investments may go down in value.
This communication may contain independent market commentary prepared by ETFS UK based on publicly available information. Although ETFS UK endeavours to ensure the accuracy of the content in this communication, ETFS UK does not warrant or guarantee its accuracy or correctness. Any third party data providers used to source the information in this communication make no warranties or representation of any kind relating to such data. Where ETFS UK has expressed its own opinions related to product or market activity, these views may change. Neither ETFS UK, nor any affiliate, nor any of their respective, officers, directors, partners, or employees accepts any liability whatsoever for any direct or consequential loss arising from any use of this publication or its contents.
ETFS UK is required by the FSA to clarify that it is not acting for you in any way in relation to the investment or investment activity to which this communication relates. In particular, ETFS UK will not provide any investment services to you and or advise you on the merits of, or make any recommendation to you in relation to, the terms of any transaction. No representative of ETFS UK is authorised to behave in any way which would lead you to believe otherwise. ETFS UK is not, therefore, responsible for providing you with the protections afforded to its clients and you should seek your own independent legal, investment and tax or other advice as you see fit.
This document is not, and under no circumstances is to be construed as, an advertisement or any other step in furtherance of a public offering of shares or securities in the United States or any province or territory thereof. Neither this document nor any copy hereof should be taken, transmitted or distributed (directly or indirectly) into the United States.
Other than as set out above, investors may contact ETFS UK at +44 (0)20 7448 4330 or at retail@etfsecurities.com to obtain copies of prospectuses and related regulatory documentation, including annual reports. Other than as separately indicated, this communication is being made on a ”private placement” basis and is intended solely for the professional / institutional recipient to which it is delivered.
Third Parties
Securities issued by each of the Issuers are direct, limited recourse obligations of the relevant Issuer alone and are not obligations of or guaranteed by any of UBS AG, Merrill Lynch Commodities Inc. (”MLCI”), Bank of America Corporation (”BAC) or any of their affiliates. UBS AG, MLCI and BAC, Shell Trading Switzerland, Shell Treasury, HSBC Bank USA N.A., JP Morgan Chase Bank, N.A., Deutsche Bank AG any of their affiliates or anyone else or any of their affiliates. Each of UBS AG, Merrill Lynch Commodities Inc. (”MLCI”), Bank of America Corporation (”BAC) or any of their affiliates. UBS AG, MLCI and BAC, Shell Trading Switzerland, Shell Treasury, HSBC Bank USA N.A., JP Morgan Chase Bank, N.A. and Deutsche Bank AG disclaims all and any liability whether arising in tort, contract or otherwise (save as referred to above) which it might have in respect of this document or its contents otherwise arising in connection herewith.
”Dow Jones,” ”UBS”, DJ-UBS CISM,”, ”DJ-UBS CI-F3SM,” and any related indices or sub-indices are service marks of Dow Jones Trademark Holdings LLC (”Dow Jones”), CME Group Index Services LLC (”CME Indexes”), UBS AG (”UBS”) or UBS Securities LLC (”UBS Securities”), as the case may be, and have been licensed for use by the Issuer. The securities issued by CSL although based on components of the Dow Jones UBS Commodity Index 3 month ForwardSM are not sponsored, endorsed, sold or promoted by Dow Jones, CME Indexes, UBS, UBS Securities or any of their respective subsidiaries or affiliates, and none of Dow Jones, CME Indexes, UBS, UBS Securities, or any of their respective subsidiaries or affiliates, makes any representation regarding the advisability of investing in such product.
PBOC (Peoples Bank of China) sänkte i förra veckan räntan, något som tillsammans med marknaden förväntningar om ytterligare sänkningar, något som har fått börsen i Shanghai att rusa mer än den gjort på femton månader, och nå den högsta nivån på tre år.
Shanghaibörsen har nu levererat en uppgång på 31 procent, yeat-to-date, den bästa utvecklingen sedan 2009.
De finansiella aktierna steg under gårdagen med i snitt 6,7 procent, den högsta uppgången av de tio olika undergrupper på Shanghaibörsen. Samtidigt steg Hang Seng med 1,3 procent och China Enterprises Index rusade med 2,8 procent.
Shanghai (info) (上海市; Shànghǎishì) är en megastad i Folkrepubliken Kina, belägen vid Yangtzes delta mot Östkinesiska havet. Shanghai är ett av de fyra storstadsområdena i Kina som är ställda direkt under landets centrala administration i huvudstaden Peking.
Shanghai är en av Kinas och världens absolut största städer. Centrala Shanghai utan dess förorter hade 18 630 000 invånare 2014. Regionen hade officiellt 24 260 000 invånare år 2014. Hela det urbana området runt Shanghai var 2010 befolkad av 34 000 000 invånare.
Shanghai är ett av världens vikigaste finanscentra[4] och en viktig transporthub med världens största containerhamn.
Shanghai var en av fem fördragshamnar som tvingades öppna efter freden i Nanking i slutet av första opiumkriget (1839–1842). Därefter bildades Franska koncessionen och Shanghai International Settlement. Shanghai är bland annat känt för de kolloniala byggnaderna vid Bund, skyskraporna på Pudong och Yu Garden från 1500-talet.
